paper What Do Sociolinguistics Study? And Language Choice In Multilingual Communities.

What Do Sociolinguistics Study?

And

Language Choice In Multilingual Communities

“Sociolinguistics”

Lecturer: Sihindun Arumi, S.Pd, M.pd

ENGLISH DEPARTEMENT

5B Class

GROUP 2

1.      Wahyu Eka Diansari                           (1351800036)

2.      Andi Prabowo                                     (1351800049)

3.      Uswatun Khasanah                             (1351800053)

4.      Wiwik Widiyanti                                (1351800066)

5.      Lestya Hernianingsih                          (1351800067)

TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY

VETERAN BANGUN NUSANTARA UNIVERSITY OF SUKOHARJO

2015

PREFACE

The written say gratitude to ALLAH SWT, that already give we mercy, until writer can be finish the article that have title AN INTODUCTION TO SOCIOLINGUISTICS that catch only chapter 1 and 2.

From this article we hope all university student can be understanding part from chapter 1-2 from the book AN INTODUCTION TO SOCIOLINGUISTICS. The chapter 1 and 2 explaint about what do sociolinguicts study and multilingual speech communication. I have compiled the riferences from several different sources and written the articles with modification and simplification to make them eaiser for to understand.

The written say alhamdulialah and say thanks for all side that give help,carried and motivation to written to make process this article. I hope ALLAH SWT replay all. Amin .

The written realize this article still so far from perfect . To  perfect  article give we critic and suggestion. The finish I think enough, I hope you can be benefit from article.

Written

Sukoharjo, Indonesia

October 2015

CONTENTS

PREFACE.............................................................................................................................................i

CONTENTS.........................................................................................................................................ii

CHAPTER 1.........................................................................................................................................1

A.    What is Sociolinguistics...........................................................................................................1

B.     Why Do We Say The Same Different Ways?..........................................................................1

C.     What Are Different Ways We Say Things ?............................................................................2

D.    Social Factor.............................................................................................................................2

E.     Social Dimensi..........................................................................................................................3

F.      The referential and affective function scales............................................................................5

CHAPTHER 2......................................................................................................................................6

A.    Choosing your variety or code.................................................................................................9

B.     Diglossia...................................................................................................................................9

C.     Code-Switching or Code- Mixing............................................................................................9

CLOSING...........................................................................................................................................12

A.    Conclusion..............................................................................................................................12

GLOSARIUM....................................................................................................................................13

CHAPTER 1

What do sociolinguists study?

A.    WHAT IS A LINGUISTTS?

Sociolinguists study the relationship between language and society. They are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the social functions oflanguage and the ways it is used to convey social meaning.

The sociolinguistic explain about how way we speaking with words which different and intonation different. Sociolinguistic is relationship close with language and social. The speaker ask from to e caused.

For  example :

Ray greets his mother with the friendly from he, compare to more distante and formal good afternoon used to the school principal. We choose our word carefull according to whom we are talking to language choices convey information about social relationship about people as wellas about the topic as discussion,

B.     WHY DO WE SAY THE SAME THING IN DIFFERENT WAYS.

We say the same in different way it’s used to formal or informal. We can be different from social status. We can speak formal to the leader, we can be call respectful to the leader and we can be call enjoy to friend and family.

For example :

Name	Speakers	When / where
Robert	grandparents	Home
	Teacher	School
	Doctor	Hospital,surgery,
	Mother	When annoyed
robbie	Mother,father	Most of the time
bob	Friends	Most of the time

C.     WHAT ARE DIFFERENT WAYS WE SAY THINGS ?

                  Sociolinguists are also interested in the different types of linguistic variation used to express and reflect social factors. Vocabulary or word choice is one area oflinguistic variation (e.g. that bastard Sootbucket vs my teacher Mr Sutton, Margaret vs dear). But linguistic variation occurs at other levels oflinguistic analysis too: sounds, word -structure (or morphology), and grammar (or syntax) as well as vocabulary. Within each of these linguistic levels there is variation which offers the speaker a choice of ways of expression. They provide us with different linguistic styles for use in different social contexts. Choices may even involve different dialects of a language, or quite different languages, as we shall see.

We way speak, a sound or intonation and expression influence the feeling a human.

For example :

If we speak with thick sound, then its sign we while angry.

If we speak with soft sound then its sign we don’t angry.

D.    SOCIAL FACTOR

                  In each of the examples discussed, certain social factors have been relevant in accounting for the particular variety used. Some relate to the users of language - the participants; others relate to its uses - the social setting and function of the interaction. Who is talking to whom (e.g. wife - husband, customer - shop-keeper, boss - worker) is an important factor. The setting or social context (e.g. home, work, school) is generally a relevant factor too. The aim or purpose of the interaction (informative, social) may be important. And in some cases the topic has proved an influence on language choice. University students in countries which use English for tertiary education, such as Tanzania, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, often find it easier to discuss their university subjects using English, for example, just as the students from Hemnesberget used standard Norwegian rather than the local dialect to discuss national politics.

                  Not all factors are relevant in any particular context but they can be grouped in ways which are helpful. In any situation linguistic choices will generally reflect the influence of one or more of the following components:

1. The participants: a. who is speaking and b. who are they speaking to?

2. The setting or social context of the interaction: where are they speaking?

3. The topic: what is being talked about?

4. The function: why are they speaking?

                  In this book the focus will be on speech, but the same questions can be asked about written communication, as example 5 illustrated. Throughout this book, these social factors will prove important in describing and analysing all kinds of interaction. They are basic components in sociolinguistic explanations of why we don't all speak the same way, and why we don't all speak in the same way all of the time.

                  Disscusion used English language for present and use local language for group local. Social factor have to influence way we speak. The factor the influence for environtment.

E.     SOCIAL DIMENSI

In addition to these components it is useful to take account of four different dimensions for analysis which relate to the factors above and which have been only implicit in the discussion so far. These are:

1. A social distance scale concerned with participant relationships

2. A status scale concerned with participant relationships

3. A formality scale relating to the setting or type of interaction

4. Two functional scales relating to the purposes or topic of interaction.

a.       The solidarity – social distance scale

Intimate                                                      Distant                                  

---

High solidarity                                                Low solidarity

            This scale is useful in emphasising that how well we know someone is a relevant factor in linguistic choice. In Wales, the choice of Meg vs Mrs Billington reflects consideration of this dimension, for instance. People's choice of Ranam,U vs Bokmill in Hemnesberget, or German rather than Italian in Sauris, similarly reflects judgements about a relationship on this dimension. The social status influence ways we call.

Ex:

boss vs worker

student vs teacher

they used Mr or Mrs to call.

b.      The status scale

Superior High status

Subordinate Low status

This scale points to the relevance of relative status in some linguistic choices. The choice of sir by Ray in the first example, for instance, signalled that the school principal was of higher status and entitled to a respect term. Similarly the name avoidance by her secretary and the use of Mrs by the caretaker reflected the higher status of Margaret Walker-Billington, since she called both of these people by their first names. Sam's [h J -dropping in example 4 reflected his lower social group status in the society as a whole, while the educationally and occupationally higher-status Jim dropped none. A language that used formality language.

c.       The formality scale

Formal High formality

Informal Low formality

            This scale is useful in assessing the intluence ot the socIal settmg or type ot mteraction on language choice. In a formal transaction such as one with the bank manager in his office, or at a ritual service in church, the language used will be influenced by the formality of the setting. For a friendly chat, people use colloquial language. In Hemnesberget, Bokm,ll was the language of school and government offices. Ranamal was the language of the home. The written language of notices is often very formal and impersonal, as example 5 illustrates. Often degrees of formality are largely determined by solidarity and status relationships. But not always. A very formal setting, such as a law court, will influence language choice regardless of the personal relationships between the speakers

F.      The referential and affective function scales

Though language serves many functions, the two identified in these scales are particularly pervasive and basic. Language can convey objective information of a referential kind; and it can also express how someone is feeling. Ray's utterance Yeah, that bastard Sootbucket kept us in again simultaneously expresses information about why he is late, while also conveying his feelings about the teacher referred to. Gossip may provide a great deal of new referential information, while also clearly conveying how the speaker feels about those referred to. It is very common for utterances to work like this, though often one function will dominate. In general the more referentially oriented an interaction is, the less it tends to express the feelings of the speaker. Radio broadcasts of the weather forecast tend to put the emphasis on information or the referential function, for instance. By contrast, interactions which are more concerned with expressing feelings often have little in the way of new information to communicate. Talk between neighbours over the fence at the weekend about the weather, for instance, is more likely to be mainly affective in function, and intended to convey goodwill towards the neighbour rather than important new information. In fact the specific content of the conversation is rarely important. These scales will be referred to and illustrated further in subsequent chapters. Together with the social components identified in the previous section they provide a useful framework for discussing language in its social context in different speech communities, and for discussing the ways in which language reflects its users and the uses they put it to.

Language can expression we feeling, we must speak with clear so that audien not incorrect meaning. Language give we information. We must speak with right intonation.

CHAPTER 2

LANGUAGE CHOICE IN MULTILINGUAL COMMUNITIES

There are several important points to discuss in this chapter: diglossia, code choice, code switching, and code mixing.

A. CHOOSING VARIETY OR CODE

1.      What is your linguistic repertoire?

Example 1

Kalala is 16 years old. He lives in Bukavu, an African city in eastern Zaire with a

population of about 220,000. It is a multicultural, multilingual city with more people

coming and going for work and business reasons than people who live there permanently. Over forty groups speaking different languages can be found in the city.

Kalala, like many of his friends, is unemployed. He spends his days roaming the streets, stopping off periodically at regular meeting places in the market—place, in the park, or at a friend’s place. During a normal day he uses at least three different varieties or codes, and sometimes more.

Kalala speaks an informal style of Shi, his tribal language, at home with his family, and he is familiar with the formal Shi used for weddings and funerals. He uses informal Shi in the market-place when he deals with vendors from his own ethnic group. When he wants to communicate with people from a different tribal group, he uses the lingual franca of the area, Swahili. He learned standard Zairean Swahili at school but the local market—place variety is a little different. It has its own distinct linguistic features and even its own name — Kingwana. He uses Kingwana to younger children and to adults he meets in the streets, as well as to people in the market place.

Standard Zairean Swahili, one of the national languages, is the language used in Bukavu for most official transactions, despite the fact that French is the official language of Zaire. Kalala uses standard Zairean Swahili with officials in government offices when he has to fill in a form or pay a bill. He uses it when he tries for a job in a shop or an office, but there are very few jobs around. He spends most of his time with his friends, and with them he uses a special variety or code called Indoubil. This is a variety which is used among the young people in Bukavu, regardless of their ethnic backgrounds or tribal affiliations. It is used like in-group slang between young people in monolingual communities. Indoubil is based on Swahili but it has developed into a distinct variety or code in Zaire by drawing on languages like French, English, and Italian — all languages which can be read or heard in the multilingual city of Bukavu.

If we list the varieties or codes he uses regularly, we find that Kalala’s linguistic repertoire includes three varieties of Swahili (standard Zairean, local Swahili or Kingwana, and Indoubil) and two varieties of his tribal language, Shi (a formal and an in formal or casual style). The factors that lead Kalala to choose one code rather than another are the kinds of social factors identified in the previous chapter as relevant to language choice in speech communities throughout the world. Characteristics of the users or  participants are relevant. Kalala’s own linguistic repertoire and the repertoire of the person he is talking to are basic limiting factors, for instance.

Kalala’s Linguistic repertoire	Adrresee’s Linguistic repertoir
Shi: informal style        Formal style Indoubil Kingwana Santdard Zairean Swahili	Rega: Informal style           Formal style Linggala Standard Zairean Swahili

Table 2.1 illustrates the possibilities for communication when Kalala wanted to talk to a soldier who had recently arrived in Bukavu with his unit. Since he and his addressee share only one code or variety, standard Swahili, there is not much choice if he wants to communicate referential content (as opposed to, say, insult, abuse or admiration, where any variety could carry the affective message).

2.      Domain of language use

Domain is an area of human activity in which one particular speech variety or a combination of several varities is regularly used.A domain can be considered as a groupe f related social situations. A useful way of classifying social situations is to analyze them into three defining characteristics: Place, role-relationship and topic. Together these make up a set of typical domains. One common domain is 'home'. Domains are named usually for a place or an activity in it. Home then is the place. The role relationships associated with home include family members and visitors. There are a suitable set of topics such as activities of the family, news about family members , the meal, the household. A particular variety nof language is appropriate to the domain. In a multilingual community, different languages may well be considered appropriate for different domains role relationships might involve different languages choice. For instance, husband and wife might use one language to each other but father and children might use another.

Example 2

‘Anahina is a bilingual Tongan New Zealander living in Auckland. At home with her family she uses Tongan almost exclusively for a wide range of topics. She often talks to her grandmother about Tongan customs, for instance. With her mother she exchanges gossip about Tongan friends and relatives. Tongan is the language the family uses at meal—times. They discuss what they have been doing, plan family outings, and share information about Tongan social events. It is only with her older sisters that she uses some English words when they are talking about school or doing their homework.

Certain social factors — who you are talking to, the social con text of the talk, the function and topic of the discussion — turn out to be important in accounting for language choice in many different kinds of speech community. It has proved very useful, particularly when describing code choice in large speech communities, to look at ‘typical’ interactions which involve these factors. We can imagine, for instance, a ‘typical’ family interaction. It would be located in the setting of the home; the typical participants will obviously be family members; and typical topics would be family activities. ‘Anahina’s family’s meal—time conversations, described in example 2, illustrate this pattern well. A number of such typical interactions have been identified as relevant in describing patterns of code choice in many speech communities. They are known as domains of language use, a term popularised by an American sociolinguist, Joshua Fishman. A domain involves typical interactions between typical participants in typical settings.

3.      Modeling Variety or code choice

Example 4

Maria is a teenager whose Portuguese parents came to London in the l960s. She uses mainly Portuguese at home and to older people at the Portuguese Catholic church and community centre, but English is the appropriate variety or code for her to use at school. She uses mostly English at her after-school job serving in a local café, though occasionally older customers greet her in Portuguese.

Domain is clearly a very general concept which draws on three important social factors in code choice — participants, setting and topic. It is useful for capturing broad generalisations about any speech community. Using information about the domains of use in a community it is possible to draw a very simple model summarising the norms of language use for the community. This is often particularly useful for bilingual and multi lingual speech communities.

The information provided in example 4, for instance, identifies four domains and describes the variety or code appropriate to each.

Domain	Variety/code
Home/family Chruch/religion Work/employment School/education	Portuguese Portuguese English English

While it obviously oversimplifies the complexity of bilingual interaction, nevertheless a model like this can be useful in a number of ways. First it forces us to be very clear about which domains and varieties are relevant to language choice. The model summarises what we know about the patterns of language use in the community. It is not an account of the choices a person must make or of the process they go through in selecting a code. It is simply a description of the community’s norms which can be altered or if we discover more information. It would be possible, to add other domains after ‘school’, for instance, such as ‘the pub’ or ‘the law court’.

B. DIGLOSSIA

Diglossia situation is exist in a society when it has two distinct codes which show a clear functional separation.; that is, one is adopted in one set of circumstances and the other in entirely different set. A key defining characteristics of diglossia is that the two varieties kept quite apart functionally. One is used in a set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set. For example, the H variety is the prestige variety, the L variety lacks prestige. On occasion, one may teach in an H variety but answer questions about its concerns or explain part of it in an L variety to strengthen the understanding.

C. CODE SWITCHING OR CODE MIXING

a.       CODE SWITCHING

Code switching occur when a people or a speaker alternates between two or more language, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation. Bilingual speakers have a choice to chose more language from from many language. Aspect of code switching are participant, solidarity and status. People sometimes switch code within a domain or social situaton. A speaker may similarly switch to another language as a signal of group membership and shared ethnicity with an addressee.

            There are several reason was happen code- switching in social relasionship, among the most obvious factors are namely, quoting someone, marking and emphasizing group identity, include or excluding someone from a conversation, raising status, and showing language expertise.

            For example, at first someone uses Indonesian language, and then he/she switches into Javanese. This event manifests in switch of regional, social, style and register variants. In code-switching, the use of two or more languages is marked by:

(a) Each language still supports its own functions based on the contexts;
(b) Each language function is based on relevant situation with contexts change.

           

Kinds of switch code are :

1.      Lexical Borrowing

Lexical borrowing is “the adoption of individual words or even large sets of vocabulary items from another language or dialect”. A people use a second language for instance , they will use part term of their mother tongue or first language. Sometimes “the switches” are triggeded by lack vocab. They also will use another languge to express what they will tell about.

2.      Linguistic constrains

This is a form when a people or a speaker switch with insert some word in a sentence or insert in as object or noun in a sentence that still any relationship. So, other people can uderstand or can guess what the speaker say about.

Example :

                        Javanes                       Bahasa

                        Umah jowo     Rumah jawa

                       

3.      Metaphorical switching

Metaphorical code-switching refers to the tendency in a bilingual or multilingual community to switch codes in a conversational in order to discuss a topic that would normally fall into another coversational domain.

4.      Situational switching

Situational code-switching is the tendency in a bilingual or multilingual community to use different social situation, or to switch varieties in order to mark a change in situational

b.      CODE MIXING

The use of two or more language by putting in/inserting linguistic elements in one language into other language consistently. In code-mixing, dependency features are marked by the relationship between the language role and function. If the speaker mixes his/her code/language, then it must be asked who the speaker is: his/her social background, level of education, religion, etc. A speaker who masters many languages will have chance to mix code more than the other speaker who only masters one or two languages.

Some reasons to mix code

a)      Role identification è parameter: social, registral, educational.

b)      Style identification è parameter: the language use.

c)      The desire to explain and interpret è parameter: the speaker’s attitude and relationship with other persons and the reverse.

So, code-mixing occurs when there is co-relationship between the role of (speaker), linguistic forms and language functions.

Examples
The use of Dutch language represents that the speaker is educated and “tempo doeloe”person.
The use of ‘krama inggil’ in Indonesia- Javanese language represents that the speaker is from royal family or “bangsawan” Etc.

CLOSING

A.    Conclusion

Sociolinguists study the relationship between language and society. They are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the social functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning.

From social status we can call a human with way different. They ways speak, sound the speak, intonation, and express influence to felling . A human use a language formal to formal agenda and use enjoy language to agenda every days. Social dimension form dimension that see from attitude. The environment influence to social status and social lives. So The environment influence to language.

When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to influence each other. A multilingual situation may give rise to code-switching or code-mixing. If it is code switching, it may be situational or metaphorical. If it is situational, it may be based on the topic (e.g. cooking in Chinese, economics in English). In bilingual and multilingual communities different languages can have different social meanings and values. Bilingual speakers can choose which language to speak depending on context, topics, personal goals etc.

GLOSSARIUM

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/diglossia http://az19081991.blogspot.co.id/2013/04/code-mixing-and-code-switching_2033.html?m=1

Holmes Janet, An Introduction To Sociolinguistics. 2001. Palatino: Malaysia